The Carthaginians Read online

  THE CARTHAGINIANS

  The Carthaginians reveals the complex culture, society and achievements of a famous, yet misunderstood ancient people. Beginning as Phoenician settlers in North Africa, the Carthaginians then broadened their civilisation with influences from neighbouring North African peoples, Egypt, and the Greek world. Their own cultural influence in turn spread across the Western Mediterranean as they imposed dominance over Sardinia, western Sicily, and finally southern Spain.

  As a stable republic Carthage earned respectful praise from Greek observers, notably Aristotle, and from many Romans – even Cato, otherwise notorious for insisting that ‘Carthage must be destroyed’. Carthage matched the great city-state of Syracuse in power and ambition, then clashed with Rome for mastery of the Mediterranean West. For a time, led by her greatest general Hannibal, she did become the leading power between the Atlantic and the Adriatic.

  It was chiefly after her destruction in 146 BC that Carthage came to be depicted by Greeks and Romans as an alien civilisation, harsh, gloomy and bloodstained. Demonising the victim eased the embarrassment of Rome’s aggression; Virgil in his Aeneid was one of the few to offer a more sensitive vision. Exploring both written and archaeological evidence, The Carthaginians reveals a complex, multicultural and innovative people whose achievements left an indelible impact on their Roman conquerors and on history.

  Dexter Hoyos writes on Latin teaching and ancient history. His books include Unplanned Wars (1998), Hannibal’s Dynasty (Routledge, 2003), Truceless War (2007), and Hannibal: Rome’s Greatest Enemy (2008). He has retired after 36 years at Sydney University to continue research work on Romans and Carthaginians.

  PEOPLES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

  This series stands as the first port of call for anyone who wants to know more about the historically important peoples of the ancient world and the early Middle Ages.

  Reliable, up-to-date and with special attention paid to the peoples’ enduring legacy and influence, Peoples of the Ancient World will ensure the continuing prominence of these crucial figures in modern-day study and research.

  THE ROMANS

  An Introduction Second Edition

  Antony Kamm

  THE GREEKS

  An Introduction to their Culture Second Edition

  Robin Sowerby

  THE PERSIANS

  Maria Brosius

  THE TROJANS AND THEIR NEIGHBOURS

  Trevor Bryce

  MYCENAEANS

  Rodney Castleden

  THE EGYPTIANS

  An Introduction

  Robert Morkot

  THE BABYLONIANS

  An Introduction

  Gwendolyn Leick

  THE ISRAELITES

  An Introduction

  Antony Kamm

  THE CARTHAGINIANS

  Dexter Hoyos

  LONDON AND NEW YORK

  First published 2010

  by Routledge

  2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

  Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

  by Routledge

  270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016

  Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

  This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010.

  To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

  © 2010 Dexter Hoyos

  All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

  reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,

  mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,

  including photocopying and recording, or in any information

  storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from

  the publishers.

  British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

  A catalogue record for this book is available from the British

  Library

  Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

  Hoyos, B. D. (B. Dexter), 1944

  The Carthaginians / Dexter Hoyos.

  p. cm.

  Includes bibliographical references.

  1. Carthaginians. 2. Carthage (Extinct city)--Civilization.

  3. Carthage (Extinct city)--History. I. Title.

  DT269.C34H69 2010

  939’.73--dc22

  2009048666

  ISBN 0-203-85132-3 Master e-book ISBN

  ISBN 10: 0-415-43644-3 (hbk)

  ISBN 10: 0-415-43645-1 (pbk)

  ISBN 10: 0-203-85132-3 (ebk)

  ISBN 13: 978-0-415-43644-1 (hbk)

  ISBN 13: 978-0-415-43645-8 (pbk)

  ISBN 13: 978-0-203-85132-6 (ebk)

  TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER, BEN

  (1913–2009)

  CONTENTS

  Acknowledgements xi

  Keys to the Maps xiii

  Illustrations xxi

  Sources of Images xxiii

  Chronological Table xxvi

  Sources of knowledge xxxiii

  I The Phoenicians in the West 1

  The Phoenicians 1

  Sidon and Tyre 2

  Settlements in the West 3

  II Carthage: Foundation and Growth 6

  Tales of the foundation 6

  Legends and truths 7

  Carthage: site and potential 12

  III State and Government 20

  Citizens and aristocrats 20

  Carthaginian names 23

  Praise from Greeks 24

  Chief magistrates: the sufetes 25

  Adirim: the senate of Carthage 28

  The mysterious ‘pentarchies’ 31

  The generals 33

  Nemesis of generals: the court of One Hundred and Four 35

  The assembly of citizens 36

  IV The Carthaginian ‘sea empire’ 39

  Carthage and North Africa 39

  Carthage and the Etruscans 43

  First treaty with Rome 44

  Projection of power: Sardinia 45

  Projection of power: Sicily 47

  Carthage, Spain and the Atlantic 49

  Hanno’s Periplus 51

  Himilco’s voyage 54

  An expansionist policy? 55

  V Traders and landowners: Carthaginian society 59

  Trade and traders 59

  Land and landowning 62

  Workers and labourers 67

  Slaves 69

  VI The Cityscape of Carthage 73

  The growth of the city 73

  Temples and other sacred buildings 76

  Houses and shops 82

  Public buildings 86

  The land fortifications and the ports 88

  VII Religion and cultural life 94

  The gods and goddesses 94

  The ‘tophet’ and child sacrifice 100

  Literature at Carthage: did it exist? 105

  Visual art, including coinage 108

  VIII Carthage in Africa 124

  Politics and rivalries: Mazeus-‘Malchus’ 124

  The Magonid ascendancy 128

  The end of the Magonids 132

  The ascendancy of Hanno ‘the Great’ 134

  Politics and war in the late 4th Century: Bomilcar’s putsch 138

  The Libyans and Numidians 142

  IX Carthage at War: Sicily 149

  The Carthaginian war machine: the navy 149

  Carthage’s armies 153

  Carthaginians and Greeks in the 5th Century 163

  Carthage vs Dionysius I 166

  Carthage and Timoleon 170

  The age of Agathocles: Carthage at bay 172

  Carthage and Pyrrhus 176

  X The First War w
ith Rome, and After 178

  The second and third treaties with Rome 178

  The outbreak of the war 181

  Phases of war: 264 to 257 183

  Africa invaded and saved: 256 to 255 185

  Victories, defeats, stalemate: 254 to 242 186

  Peace and revolt 189

  XI The New Empire and Hannibal 193

  The Sardinia crisis 193

  The new empire in Spain 194

  The coming of the Second Punic War 197

  Hannibal invades Italy 199

  Hannibal, master of southern Italy 201

  Limitations and setbacks 202

  Metaurus, Zama and peace 203

  Hannibal’s war: an assessment 205

  XII Revival and Destruction 207

  Politics and reforms 207

  Peace and plenty 208

  Carthage and Numidia 211

  Politics at home and war with Masinissa 213

  The outbreak of the Third Punic War 214

  The Third Punic War 216

  XIII Carthage in History 220

  Notes 224

  Select Bibliography 234

  Index 241

  note: Punic writing, like Phoenician and Hebrew, did not use vowels. Modern transliterations of Punic words and names therefore do not add vowels, but in places I add a written-out version of a word for greater clarity.

  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  It is a special pleasure to acknowledge the encouragement, collaboration and help which many people and institutions have generously given as I prepared The Carthaginians. In first place I must thank Richard Stoneman for suggesting the topic and readily accepting my optimistic outline when he directed classical publications at Routledge. Routledge’s support for the work has continued steadily since then, in spite of my slow work and distractions, and I owe much in the latest stages of composition to the firm and friendly guidance of my series editor Lalle Pursglove. Sydney University, my professional centre for thirty-six years, has provided invaluable facilities for my research even after I left full-time academic life for what I thoughtlessly supposed would be serene retirement. Sydney University Library in turn is one of the most supportive institutions that I know for scholarly work, in both its facilities and its staff.

  The illustrations for the book I owe to a generous range of scholars and institutions. Professor M’hamed Hassine Fantar, Titulaire de la Chaire Ben Ali pour le Dialogue des Civilisations et des Religions at the University of Tunisia, gave me immediate permission to use images from his vividly illustrated book Carthage: La cité punique, and so did its publisher, CNRS Editions of Paris. The Institut National du Patrimoine in the Ministère de la Culture et de la Sauvegarde du Patrimoine, Republic of Tunisia, and its Directeur Général Professor Fathi Bejaoui have with equal generosity authorised me to reproduce images of Carthaginian materials held in the great museums of Tunisia. The Badisches Landesmuseum of Karlsruhe, Germany, in turn authorised me to use two evocative photographs in its possession.

  Most images themselves are taken, in turn, from the splendid volume edited by Sabine Peters, Hannibal ad Portas: Macht und Reichtum Karthagos, published by Theiss Verlag of Stuttgart, Germany, to accompany the wide-ranging exhibition of Carthaginian, Phoenician and related artefacts presented at the Badisches Landesmuseum in 2004. Theiss Verlag, through its executive in Programmleitung Mr Rüdiger Müller, has both encouraged my efforts and granted me the permission to make the necessary scans of images from that work.

  The selection of coins I owe to the renewed kindness of my university colleague and friend Dr Stephen Mulligan of Sydney, who combines a distinguished professional career in haematology with an expert knowledge of Carthaginian numismatics. The high-quality coin images were made by Colin Pitchfork and Bob Climpson of Noble Numismatics Pty. Ltd., Sydney, who found the time for this task in spite of their own busy commitments.

  Finally I must acknowledge the debt I owe to my wife Jann and daughter Camilla, whose support and love are the bedrock of my life, both in and outside scholarship.

  MAPS

  The maps have been drawn by the author to show the principal places mentioned in this book. The largest and most detailed maps of the Mediterranean world will be found in R. J. A. Talbert (ed.), The Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World (Princeton Univ. Press, 2000).

  Map 1A Carthage: the City

  Map 1B

  Map 2 Carthage and Libya

  Key to Map 2

  Map 3A The Mediterranean World

  Key to Map 3A

  Map 3B Sardinia

  Map 3C Sicily

  Key to Map 3C

  ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cover Statuette of a Carthaginian goddess with lionesshead:

  head: Isis or, less likely, Tanit

  The lioness-head is an Egyptian motif, while the goddess’ robe is Greek in style; her legs are clasped by huge wings, an Isis-cult motif (compare Illustration 21). From Thinissut on the Cape Bon peninsula, after 146 bc: an example of surviving Carthaginian cultural influence.

  Sea walls, c. 400 bc: artist’s reconstruction 74

  Mausoleum at Thugga (2nd Century bc) 79

  Stone cippus from Carthage: rectangular tower design and ‘bottle’ symbol on side 80

  View of the ‘tophet’ at Carthage 81

  Painting of city in Jebel Mlezza tomb VIII 82

  View of the ‘Hannibal quarter’ on Byrsa’s southern slope 84

  Another view of the ‘Hannibal quarter’ 84

  Carthage 1958

  Circular naval port in foreground, ‘tophet’ to the right of the rectangular commercial port, heights of Borj-el-Jedid and village of Sidi Bou Said in background. 86

  Carthage c. 200 bc: artist’s reconstruction

  The view is from the hill of Byrsa looking south, with the agora, the artificial ports and Falbe’s Quadrilateral beyond. 89

  The artificial ports area c. 1922 The peninsula stretching beyond the rectangular port has developed far beyond its ancient extent. 90

  Entrance to house at Kerkouane, with ‘sign of Tanit’ 96

  The ‘Isis priestess’ from Ste Monique tomb: marble lid of sarcophagus 97

  Ivory mirror-handle depicting a goddess(?), c. 7th Century 109

  Terracotta statuette of a goddess, 7th–6th Century 109

  Mother and child at baking oven 110

  Terracotta tondo: cavalryman and his hound 111

  Fluteplayer from Carthage: terracotta statuette, 4th Century 114

  Bronze mirror (back), profile of a goddess 115

  Terracotta head of Medusa 115

  Cippus from Hadrumetum 116

  Stele of a youth, from Hadrumetum 117

  Ossuary of a priest from Ste Monique tomb, 4th–3rd Centuries 118

  Another Isis effigy: terracotta statuette 119

  A selection of Carthaginian coins from Sicily and North Africa 122

  Heavy-armed infantry on the march: jasper scarab from Kerkouane, 4th Century bc 159

  Front and back parade armour (4th–3rd Centuries bc) found at Ksour Essaf, near Sousse 160

  SOURCES OF IMAGES

  1. From M. H. Fantar, Carthage: La cité punique, p. 39, by permission of the author and publisher.

  2. From S. Peters (ed.), Hannibal ad Portas, p. 63: by permission of the Badisches Landesmuseum, Karslruhe, and Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart.

  3. From Hannibal ad Portas, 221 no. 3: by permission of the Institut National du Patrimoine, Ministère de la Culture de la Sauvegarde du Patrimoine, Republic of Tunisia [hereafter the Institut National du Patrimoine, Tunisia], and of Theiss Verlag.

  4. Freely licensed image (Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.5) from Wikipedia Commons at: http://images.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Tunisise_Carthage_Tophet_Salambo_04.JPG&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tunisise_Carthage_Tophet_Salambo_04.JPG&usg=__w1I_TucezbuF7-AgxLy8CWKZrds=&h=2000&w=3008&sz=3201&hl=en&start=3&um=1&tbnid=YnoFeRmUnbjiPM:&
tbnh=100&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dcarthage%2Btophet%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN%26um%3D1, retrieved 19/10/2009.